Cells

**//I. All Organisms are Made of Cells //** A. The cell is the **basic unit of structure & function** B. The cell is the smallest unit that can still carry on all life processes C. Both **unicellular (one celled)** and **multicellular (many celled)** organisms are composed of cells D. Before the 17th century, no one knew cells existed E. Most cells are **too small to be seen with the unaided eye** F. In the early **17th century microscopes were invented** & cells were seen for the 1st time G. **Anton Von Leeuwenhoek **, a Dutchman, made the **1st hand-held microscope** & viewed microscopic organisms in water & bacteria from his teeth || Leeuwenhoek's microscope consisted simply of:
 * //EQ: What are the STRUCTUREs AND FUNCTIONs THE CELLs? //**
 * A) a screw for adjusting the height of the object being examined
 * B) a metal plate serving as the body
 * C) a skewer to impale the object and rotate it
 * D) the lens itself, which was spherical

I. Hooke named what he saw **"cells"**
 * H. In 1665, an English scientist named **Robert Hooke** made an improved microscope and viewed thin slices of **cork viewing plant cell walls**

**<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">J. **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">In the 1830’s, Matthias **Schleiden** (botanist studying plants) & Theodore **Schwann** (zoologist studying animals) stated that **all living things were made of cells** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">K. In 1855, Rudolf **Virchow** stated **that cells only arise from pre-existing cells** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">L. Virchow’s idea contradicted the idea of **spontaneous generation** (idea that nonliving things could give rise to organisms) <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">M. The combined work of Schleiden, Schwann, & Virchow is known as the **Cell Theory**

**//<span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">II. Principles of the Cell Theory //** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">A. All living things are made of one or more cells <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">B. Cells are the basic unit of structure & function in organisms <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">C. Cells come only from the reproduction of existing cells <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">A. Not all cells are alike <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">B. Cells **differ in size, shape, and function** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">C. The female **egg cell is the largest** cell in the body & can be seen without a microscope <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">D. **Bacterial cells are some of the smallest cells** & are only visible with a microscope <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">E. Cells **need surface area** of their cell membrane large enough to adequately exchange materials with the environment (wastes, gases such as O2 & CO2, and nutrients) **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">F. **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">Cells are **limited in size by the ratio between their outer surface area & their volume** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">G. Small cells have more surface area for their volume of cytoplasm than large cells <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">H. **As cells grow**, the amount of surface area becomes too small to allow materials to enter & leave the cell quickly enough
 * //<span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">III. Cell Diversity //**

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">I. Cell **size is also limited** by the amount of cytoplasmic activity that the cell’s nucleus can control <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">J. Cells come in a **variety of shapes,** & the **shape helps determine the function** of the cell (e.g. **Nerve cells** are long to transmit messages in the body, while **red blood cells** are disk shaped to move through blood vessels) **//<span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">IV. Prokaryotes //** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">A. Prokaryotic cells are **less complex** **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">B. Unicellular ** **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">C. Do not have a nucleus & no membrane-bound organelles ** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">D. Most have a **cell wall** surrounding the **cell membrane** & a single, looped **chromosome** (genetic material) in the **cytoplasm** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">E. Include **bacteria** & blue-green bacteria **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">F. **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">Found in the kingdom **Monera** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; color: #ff0000; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold",sans-serif; font-size: 15px;">**//V. Eukaryotes//** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">A. More complex cells <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">B. Includes **both unicellular & multicellular** organisms **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">C. Do have a true nucleus & membrane-bound organelles ** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">D. **Organelles** are internal structures in cell’s that perform specific functions <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">E. **Organelles are surrounded by a single or double membrane** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">F. Entire eukaryotic cell surrounded by a thin **cell membrane** that controls what enters & leaves the cell <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">G. **Nucleus** is located in the center of the cell <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">H. **The nucleus** contains the genetic material (DNA) & controls the cell’s activities

<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">I. Eukaryotes include **plant cells, animal cells, fungi, algae, & protists** **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">J. Prokaryotes or bacteria **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">lack a nucleus

<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">K. Found in the kingdoms **Protista, Fungi, Plantae, & Animalia**

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">A. Separates the cytoplasm of the cell from its environment <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">B. **Protects** the cell & **controls what enters and leaves** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">C. Cell membranes are **selectively permeable** only allowing certain materials to enter or leave <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">D. Composed of a lipid **bilayer** made of **phospholipid molecules**
 * //<span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">VI. Cell Membrane //**

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">E. The **hydrophilic head** of a phospholipid is **polar** & composed of a **glycerol & phosphate group** and points to the **aqueous** cytoplasm and external environment. <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">F. The two **hydrophobic tails** are **nonpolar** point toward each other in the center of the membrane & are composed of **two fatty acids**

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">G. When phospholipids are placed in water, they line up on the water’s surface with **their heads sticking into the water** & their **tails pointing upward** from the surface. <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">H. The inside of the cell or **cytoplasm is an aqueous** or watery environment & so is the **outside of the cell**. **Phospholipid "heads" point toward the water**.

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">I. **Phospholipid "tails" are sandwiched inside the lipid bilayer**.

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">J. The cell membrane is **constantly breaking down & being reformed** inside living cells. <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">K. Certain small molecules such as **CO2, H2O, & O2 can easily pass** through the phospholipids <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">A. A variety of **protein molecules are embedded** in the cell’s lipid bilayer.
 * //<span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">VII. Membrane Proteins //**

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">B. Some proteins called **peripheral proteins** are attached to the **external & internal surface** of the cell membrane <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">C. **Integral proteins** or **transmembrane proteins** are embedded & extend across the entire cell membrane. These are **exposed to both the inside of the cell & the exterior** environment. <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">D. Other integral proteins extend only to the inside or only to the exterior surface. <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">E. Cell membrane **proteins help move materials** into & out of the cell. <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">F. Some integral proteins called **channel proteins** have **holes or pores** through them so certain substances can cross the cell membrane. <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">G. **Channel proteins help move ions** (charged particles) such as **Na+, Ca+, & K+** across the cell membrane <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">H. **Transmembrane proteins bind to a substance** on one side of the membrane & carry it to the other side. **e.g. glucose** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">I. Some embedded, integral proteins have **carbohydrate chains** attached to them to serve as **chemical signals to help cells recognize each other** or for hormones or viruses to attach

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">A. The **phospholipids & proteins** in a cell membrane can drift or **move side to side** making the membrane appear "fluid". <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">B. The **proteins embedded** in the cell membrane form **patterns or mosaics**.
 * //<span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">VIII. Fluid Mosaic //**

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">C. Because the membrane is fluid with a pattern or mosaic of proteins, the modern view of the cell membrane is called the **fluid mosaic model**. **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">A. Cytoplasm ** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">includes everything between the nucleus and cell membrane. **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">B. Cytoplasm **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">is composed of organelles & **cytosol** (jellylike material consisting of mainly water along with proteins.  **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">C. Eukaryotes **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">have membrane-bound organelles; **prokaryotes** do not
 * //<span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">IX. Internal Cell Structure & Organelles of Eukaryotes //**

**<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">D. Mitochondria **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">are large organelles with **double membranes** where **cellular** **respiration** (breaking down glucose to get energy) occurs <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. Energy from glucose is used to make **ATP or adenosine triphosphate** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. Cells use the ATP molecule for energy <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">3. **More active** cells like muscle cells have **more mitochondria** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">4. **Outer membrane is smooth**, while **inner membrane** has long **folds** called **cristae** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">5. Have **their own DNA** to make more mitochondria when needed

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">E. **Ribosomes** are **not surrounded by a membrane** & are where **proteins are made** in the cytoplasm **(protein synthesis)** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. **Most numerous** organelle <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. May be **free** in the cytoplasm or **attached to the rough ER** (endoplasmic reticulum) <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">F. **Endoplasmic reticulum** are membranous tubules & sacs that transport molecules from one part of the cell to another

<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. **Rough ER** has embedded ribosomes on its surfaces for making proteins

<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. **Smooth ER** lacks ribosomes & helps break down poisons, wastes, & other toxic chemicals <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">3. **Smooth ER** also helps process carbohydrates & lipids (fats) <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">4. The **ER network** connects the nucleus with the cell membrane **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">G. Golgi Apparatus **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">modifies, packages, & helps secrete cell products such as proteins and hormones <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. Consists of a stack of **flattened sacs called cisternae** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. Receives products made by the ER

**<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">H. Lysosomes ** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">are small organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes to digest materials for the cell <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. **Single** membrane <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. Formed from **the ends of Golgi that pinch off** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">3. Found in most cells except plant cells <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">I. **Cytoskeleton** consists of a network of **long protein tubes & strands** in the cytoplasm to give **cells shape** and helps **move organelles** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. Composed of 2 protein structures --- **microtubules, intermediate filaments, & microfilaments** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. Microfilaments are **ropelike** structures made of 2 twisted strands of the **protein actin** capable of contracting to cause cellular movement (muscle cells have many microfilaments) <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">3. **Microtubules** are larger, **hollow** tubules of the protein called **tubulin** that maintain **cell shape**, serve as **tracks for organelle movement**, & help cells divide by **forming spindle fibers that separate chromosome pairs** || ** Cytoskeleton Element ** || ** General Function ** || Move the cilia and flagella ||
 * Microtubules || Move materials within the cell
 * Actin Filaments || Move the cell ||
 * Intermediate Filaments || Provides mechanical support ||

<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">J. **Cilia** are **short, more numerous** hair like structures made of **bundles of microtubules** to help cells **move** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. Line respiratory tract to remove dust & move paramecia <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">

** Cross section of Cilia & Flagella ** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">K. **Flagella** are long **whip like** tails of microtubules bundles used for movement (usually **1-3 in number**) <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;"> <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. Help sperm cells swim to egg <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">L. **Nucleus (nuclei)** in the **middle** of the cell contains DNA (hereditary material of the cell) & acts as the **control center** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. Most cells have **1 nucleolus**, but some have several <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. Has a **protein skeleton** to keep its shape <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">3. Surrounded by a **double layer** called the **nuclear envelope** containing pores <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">4. **Chromatin** is the long strand of DNA in the nucleus, which coils during cell division to make **chromosomes** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">5. **Nucleolus (nucleoli)** inside the nucleus makes ribosomes & **disappears during cell division**

**<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">M. Cell walls **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">are nonliving, protective layers around the cell membrane in plants, bacteria, & fungi

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. **Fungal** cell walls are made of **chitin**, while **plant** cell walls are made of **cellulose** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. Consist of a **primary cell wall** made first and a **woody secondary cell wall** in some plants **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">N. Vacuoles **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">are the largest organelle in plants taking up most of the space <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. Serves as a storage area for **proteins, ions, wastes, and cell products such as glucose** <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. **May contain poisons** to keep animals from eating them <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">3. **Animal vacuoles are smaller & used for digestion** **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">O. Plastids **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">in plants make or store food & contain pigments to trap sunlight <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">1. **Chloroplast** is a plastid that captures sunlight to make **O2 and glucose** during **photosynthesis;** contains **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">chlorophyll ** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">a. **Double membrane** organelle with an inner system of membranous sacs called **thylakoids** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">b. Thylakoids made of **stacks of grana** containing chlorophyll <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. Other plastids contain red, orange, and yellow pigments

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">3. Found in **plants, algae, & seaweed** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;"> <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">A. Cells are **specialized** to perform one or a few functions in multicellular organisms <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">B. Cells in multicellular organisms **depend on each other** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">C. The **levels of organization** include: <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">**Cells --> Tissues --> Organs --> Systems --> Organism**
 * //<span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">X. Multicellular Organization //**

<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">D. **Tissues** are groups of cells that performs a particular function (e.g. **Muscle**) **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">E. Organs **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">are groups of tissues working together to do a job (e.g. **heart, lungs, kidneys, brain)** **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">F. Systems **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">are made of several organs working together to carry out a life process **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">(e.g. Respiratory system for breathing) ** **<span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">G. Plants ** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">have specialized tissues & organs different from animals <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">1. **Dermal tissue** forms the outer covering of plants <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">2. **Ground tissue** makes up roots & stems <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">3. **Vascular tissue** transports food & water <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">4. The four plant organs are the **root, stem, leaf, & flower** <span style="font-family: "Arial Rounded MT Bold","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; margin: 5pt 1in;">H. **Colonial organisms** are made of cells living closely together in a connected group but without tissues & organs (e.g. Volvox)